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Academic dishonesty or academic misconduct is any type of cheating that occurs in relation to a formal academic exercise. It can include * Plagiarism: The adoption or reproduction of original creations of another author (person, collective, organization, community or other type of author, including anonymous authors) without due acknowledgment. * Fabrication: The falsification of data, information, or citations in any formal academic exercise. * Deception: Providing false information to an instructor concerning a formal academic exercise—''e.g.,'' giving a false excuse for missing a deadline or falsely claiming to have submitted work. * Cheating: Any attempt to obtain assistance in a formal academic exercise (like an examination) without due acknowledgment. * Bribery: or paid services. Giving assignment answers or test answers for money. * Sabotage: Acting to prevent others from completing their work. This includes cutting pages out of library books or willfully disrupting the experiments of others. * Professorial misconduct: Professorial acts that are academically fraudulent equate to academic fraud and/or grade fraud. * Impersonation: assuming a student's identity with intent to provide an advantage for the student.〔http://www.qmu.ac.uk/quality/documents/prof_doc_regs_june08.doc〕〔http://www.ed.ac.uk/schools-departments/academic-services/students/postgraduate-taught/discipline/academic-misconduct〕〔http://micn.otago.ac.nz/current-students/assessment/assessment-procedures-guide-web-version/11-conduct〕〔http://www.sussex.ac.uk/academicoffice/1-4-1.html〕 Academic dishonesty has been documented in every type of educational setting from elementary school to graduate school. Throughout history this type of dishonesty has been met with varying degrees of approbation. ==History== In antiquity, the notion of intellectual property did not exist. Ideas were the common property of the literate elite. Books were published by hand-copying them. Scholars freely made digests or commentaries on other works, which could contain as much or as little original material as the author desired. There was no standard system of citation, because printing—and its resulting fixed paginis—was in the future. Scholars were an elite and small group who knew and generally trusted each other. This system continued through the European Middle Ages. Education was in Latin and occasionally Greek. Some scholars were monks, who used much of their time copying manuscripts. Other scholars were in urban universities connected to the Roman Catholic Church. Academic dishonesty dates back to the first tests. Scholars note that cheating was prevalent on the Chinese civil service exams thousands of years ago, even when cheating carried the penalty of death for both examinee and examiner.〔Ann Bushway and William R. Nash, "School Cheating Behavior", ''Review of Educational Research'' 47, no. 4 (Autumn 1977), 623.〕 Before the founding of the MLA and the APA at the end of the 19th century, there were no set rules on how to properly cite quotations from others' writings, which may have caused many cases of plagiarism out of ignorance."〔Sue Carter Simmons, "Competing Notions of Authorship: A Historical Look at Students and Textbooks on Plagiarism and Cheating", in ''Perspectives on Plagiarism and Intellectual Property in the Postmodern World'' ed. Lise Buranen and Alice M. Roy (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999), 42.〕 In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, cheating was widespread at college campuses in the United States, and was not considered dishonorable among students.〔Sue Carter Simmons, "Competing Notions of Authorship: A Historical Look at Students and Textbooks on Plagiarism and Cheating", in ''Perspectives on Plagiarism and Intellectual Property in the Postmodern World'' ed. Lise Buranen and Alice M. Roy (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999), 45〕 It has been estimated that as many as two-thirds of students cheated at some point of their college careers at the turn of the 20th century.〔("Psychology Through Ecology: Academic Motivation, Moral Aptitudes, and Cheating Behavior in Middle and High School Settings" )〕 Fraternities often operated so-called essay mills, where term papers were kept on file and could be resubmitted over and over again by different students, often with the only change being the name on the paper. As higher education in the U.S. trended towards meritocracy, however, a greater emphasis was put on anti-cheating policies, and the newly diverse student bodies tended to arrive with a more negative view of academic dishonesty. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Academic dishonesty」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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